ACRONYMS
ABACC: Argentinean-Brazilian Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials
ADFL: Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire
ADRA: Adventist Development Relief Agency
AFRC: Armed Forces Revolutionary Council
AICF: Action Internationale Contre le Faim:
ANC: African National Congress
APEC: Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
ARF: ASEAN Regional Forum
ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations
BASIC: British American Security
Information Council
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
BWC: Biological Weapons Convention
CARE: Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere
CI: Caritas Internationalis (Catholic Organizations for Charitable and Social Action)
CBW: Chemical and Biological Weapons
CFE: Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe
CIS: Commonwealth of Independent States
COCOM: Coordinating Committee on Multilateral Export Controls (NATO)
CRS: Catholic Relief Services
CSCE: Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
CTBT: Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
CTR: Cooperative Threat Reduction Program
CWC: Chemical Weapons Convention
DHA: Department of Humanitarian Affairs (UN)
DPKO: Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UN)
ECOMOG: ECOWAS Monitoring Group
ECOSOC: Economic and Social Council of the United Nations
ECOWAS: Economic Community of West African States
EU: European Union
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization (UN)
FSU: Former Soviet Union
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
GDR: German Democratic Republic
IAEA: : International Atomic Energy Agency
IBRD: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ICBM: Intercontinental Ballistic Missile
ICJ: International Court of Justice
ICRC: International Committee of the Red Cross
IDEA: Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
IDP: Internally displaced person
IFI: International Financial Institutions
IFOR: Implementation Force (NATO)
IMF: International Monetary Fund
IOM: International Organization for Migration
IRC: International Rescue Committee
MCI: Mercy Corps International
MCPMR: Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, and Resolution (OAU)
MDM: Médecins du Monde
MERCOSUR: Mercado Común del Sur
MSF: Médecins Sans Frontières
NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement
NAM: Nonaligned Movement
NAMFREL: National Citizens' Movement for Free Elections
NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO: Nongovernmental organization
NORDEM: Norwegian Resource Bank for Democracy and Human Rights
NOREPS: Norwegian Emergency Preparedness System
NP: National Party (South Africa)
NPT: Non-Proliferation Treaty
OAS: Organization of American States
OAU: Organization of African Unity
ODIHR: Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (OSCE)
OECD: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OIC: Organization of the Islamic Conference
OSCE: Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (formerly CSCE)
Oxfam: Oxford Committee for Famine Relief
PER: Project on Ethnic Relations
PFP: Partnership for Peace Program (NATO)
PKK: Kurdistan Workers' Party
PRC: People's Republic of China
RPF: : Rwandan Patriotic Front
RUF: : Revolutionary United Front (Sierra Leone)
SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
SADC: : Southern African Development Community
SADCC: Southern African Development Coordination Conference
SAM: : Sanctions Assistance Monitoring Team
SCCC: : Common System of Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials
SCF: : Save the Children Federation
SFOR: : Stabilization Force (NATO)
SIPRI: : Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
START: : Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
UN: : United Nations
UNAMIR: United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
UNCIVPOL: United Nations Civilian Police
UNDP: : United Nations Development Program
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNFICYP: United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNICEF: United Nations Children's Fund
UNMIH: United Nations Mission in Haiti
UNMO: : United Nations Military Observer
UNPREDEP: United Nations Preventive Deployment Force (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia)
UNPROFOR: United Nations Protection Force
UNRWA: United Nations Relief Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
UNTAC: United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
UNTAG: United Nations Transition Assistance Group (Namibia)
UPD: : Unit for the Promotion of Democracy (OAS)
USAID: : United States Agency for International Development
USIA: United States Information Agency
VOA: Voice of America
WEU : Western European Union
WFP: World Food Program
WHO : World Health Organization
WTO: World Trade Organization
REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
When local parties to a dispute are unable to resolve their differences peacefully, regional arrangements are increasingly willing and able to take preventive action. This trend toward finding creative regional solutions for regional problems is being reinforced by the UN under Chapter VIII provisions of its Charter. The following examples of regional arrangements illustrate their growing capacity for conflict prevention. While this is not a definitive list, it suggests the capacities of the arrangements to bring together member states to discuss common problems and craft joint solutions. Whether designed primarily as security, economic, or dialogue groups, these arrangements can make contributions to conflict prevention in peaceful settlement of disputes, advancement of democracy, and protection of human rights.1
Security Organizations
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). NATO's current challenge is to find ways to adapt its sophisticated decision-making and operational capacities to the security problems faced by member states. This means not only developing prudent ways to react to destabilizing situations in the former Soviet Union, such as Chechnya, but also engaging in out-of-area activities, such as in the former Yugoslavia. NATO's deployment in Bosnia represents dramatic use of a defensive alliance to encourage the parties to a dispute to settle their differences peacefully. In its deployment in Bosnia, NATO's Stabilization Force (SFOR) has had to consider whether its role should expand to promote reconciliation by bringing to justice people indicted by the International War Crimes Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. NATO's Partnership for Peace is designed to help states of the former Warsaw Pact and newly independent states adapt to democratic governance and to build among the partnership countries a capacity to respond with military resources, when necessary, to a range of situations that may threaten peace. NATO's military-to-military programs advance civilian control of the military and promote democracy in the former Warsaw Pact countries. In addition, NATO is expanding to include countries in Central and Eastern Europe to further reduce risk and to build confidence among all the states of Europe.
The Organization of American States (OAS). The OAS has emphasized the need for member states to take an active role in the preservation of regional peace and stability. In the 1980s, President Oscar Arias Sánchez of Costa Rica and other leaders in Central and South America began to combine their efforts in a concerted approach to revitalize the role of the OAS in helping to end the violence that plagued many Latin American states. In 1987, Arias was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. The 1994 Miami Summit of the Americas served, in part, to confirm the progress of the OAS in this regard and its continuing role in preserving and strengthening democratic movements, protecting human rights, and eliminating poverty in the region.
In recent years, the OAS has been very active in promoting democracy. Passage of the Santiago Commitment in 1991 obligated signatories to act against violations of democratic norms in the hemisphere and indicated OAS states' willingness to intervene in each other's internal affairs, should the need arise. The OAS has used this procedure, also known as General Assembly Resolution 1080, four times to bolster democracy in Guatemala, Haiti, Paraguay, and Peru. The 1992 Protocol of Washington, which came into force September 25, 1997, adds a new article allowing the suspension of a member whose democratically elected government is overthrown by force.
In the Office of the Secretary General, the Unit for the Promotion of Democracy (UPD) was established to assist in democratic institution building, to encourage dialogue and information exchange, and to provide electoral assistance and other special programs. In 1995, the UPD initiated a Program for the Prevention and Resolution of Community-Level Conflicts in Guatemala and has spent considerable effort in researching root causes and aggravating factors of this conflict. It has also provided conflict resolution and mediation training for governmental and nongovernmental actors at local, regional, and national levels. The OAS has teamed up with the UN in conflict resolution operations in El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and other countries.
The OAS has partner organizations that support human rights. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights acts as a consultative organ of the OAS, while the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, an autonomous juridical institution of the OAS, interprets and applies the American Convention on Human Rights.
Organization of African Unity (OAU). The OAU was established in 1963 to promote respect for the territorial integrity and sovereign equality of newly independent African states in the postcolonial period. Its charter precludes interference in the internal affairs of member states, and this feature both reflects and reinforces member states' sensitivities to questions of sovereignty and unwanted interventions. As a consequence, the OAU has historically been reluctant to become involved in the internal disputes of member states. Over the years, however, the OAU has set up ad hoc commissions on regional issues such as the Western Sahara, Chad/Libya, and Mauritania/Senegal.2 During 1991 and 1992, the OAU extended "good offices" to seven countries.3 In recent years, the OAU has devised more formal policy instruments for dispute resolution, and member states have worked to strengthen its ability to deal not only with ongoing violence, but with imminent violence as well. There has been a particular emphasis on early warning and information gathering. In 1993, the OAU established the OAU Mechanism for Conflict Prevention, Management, and Resolution (MCPMR) to help provide assistance to states beset by war; it has also strengthened the position of its secretary general for this purpose. The OAU created the African Peace Fund as a means to help finance the MCPMR and contributes five percent of its annual budget to the fund.
The OAU has developed an "African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights" that came into force in 1986. The charter includes the principles of equality before the law, respect for life, prohibition of slavery and torture, freedom of conscience and assembly, equal pay for equal work, and the right to an education.4
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). The OSCE has long been involved in efforts to support the peaceful resolution of disputes. When still called the CSCE, it undertook preventive diplomacy missions of long duration in Chechnya, Estonia, Ukraine, Tajikistan, the former Yugoslavia, and other conflicts. Following the 1994 summit in Budapest, the OSCE broadened its approach to conflict management, formally establishing the Center for Preventive Action. The OSCE also has established a Court of Conciliation and Arbitration to offer members peaceful means to resolve disputes.5 The OSCE's Office of the High Commissioner on National Minorities has taken on an important role in helping to broker peaceful solutions for the many groups that now find themselves in minority status in newly independent states. The OSCE has also assumed a broader role in promoting the transition to democracy and market economies of former Soviet bloc countries and newly independent states. The human rights agenda has been a pillar of the OSCE's activities since the signing of the Helsinki Final Act, which emphasized broad-based societal contacts (including among religious organizations), educational exchanges, and cultural cooperation.
Western European Union (WEU). The WEU was founded in 1948 as a collective defense mechanism, but quickly became overshadowed by NATO. In 1994, members revived the WEU as a defense component of the European Union (EU) and the European pillar within NATO. An example of its recent work on peaceful dispute settlement is the WEU's police element within the EU administration in the town of Mostar in Bosnia. This type of activity follows from the June 1992 Petersberg Declaration in which WEU foreign and defense ministers outlined a basis for preventive missions, including refugee and humanitarian assistance, peacekeeping, and peace enforcement operations. The ministers stated that the WEU could act on its own initiative in crises and at the request of the EU. Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia have been admitted as associate partners, creating prospects for additional military cooperation.
Economic Organizations
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) group. APEC was established in 1989 and has become an important forum for promoting economic growth and reducing trade barriers among its members. APEC countries have considered creating a regional dispute settlement mechanism to supplement that of the World Trade Organization. APEC's regular summit meetings provide opportunities for leaders to broaden their dialogue beyond economic matters to discuss a wide range of issues of mutual concern.
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). The Treaty of Lagos created ECOWAS in 1975 to promote trade, cooperation, and self-reliance among 15 developing West African countries. In 1993, member states reformed the body to focus on measures to improve the free movement of goods and people. The new treaty also assigned ECOWAS the responsibility of preventing and settling regional conflicts, a step that added weight to the experimental peacekeeping effort that ECOWAS had under way in Liberia. ECOWAS has been a regional leader in dispute resolution. In 1990, for the first time, an all-African peacekeeping force, the ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), was deployed by an African multilateral organization to help restore order and prevent further conflict in a troubled African state. Four thousand troops from the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone were deployed to Liberia. The force grew to 12,000 and was sustained with strong financial and political backing by Nigeria until Liberia finally held national elections in July 1997. A 1997 military coup in Monrovia also engaged ECOMOG forces in an effort to restore civilian government. ECOWAS has been active in supporting democracy, placing a trade embargo on Sierra Leone after a junta seized power from a democratically elected government.
The European Union (EU). Although the EU traces its origin to an economic body, the European Coal and Steel Community, it has always had an underlying strategic purpose. The Coal and Steel Community brought together former adversaries France and Germany in a framework to manage resources that had been a source of conflict. The changing landscape of Europe has prompted the EU to take on a larger role in anticipating and managing conflicts even beyond the borders of member states. The Stability Pact developed by Edouard Balladur in 1994, for example, was designed to establish a means by which minority disputes in Central and Eastern Europe might be defused.6
Although the EU has focused on the strengthening and deepening of economic cooperation among its members, it has also taken steps to broaden its agenda by defining a common foreign and security policy and coordinating joint action. The European Parliament has taken several modest steps to become engaged more substantially in conflict prevention. A number of members have formed the Forum of the European Parliament for the Active Prevention of Conflicts--a loosely organized effort that seeks to investigate circumstances of incipient conflict and lobby for more active engagement. In addition, the EU's 1996 report on human rights urged the creation of a Center for Active Crisis Prevention and the establishment of a European Civil Corps to help EU member states deal more systematically and practically with potential conflict in Europe. This same report also called for the creation of a code of conduct for European businesses operating worldwide that would oblige them to abide by international agreements protecting fundamental human rights.7
Mercado Común del Sur (MERCOSUR). MERCOSUR was founded in 1991 by the Treaty of Asunción between Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. It has a formal dispute resolution mechanism, the Controversy Settling System, for commercial disputes. Beyond its formal structure, however, as the 1996 events in Paraguay demonstrated (discussed in chapter 6), the very existence of MERCOSUR combines the economic clout of its members and makes it a useful source of influence within the region in noneconomic matters as well.
Southern African Development Community (SADC). The first Southern African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) was held in 1979 to harmonize development plans and promote collective security by reducing the economic dependence of ten southern African countries on South Africa. In 1992, in anticipation of the end of apartheid, a treaty was signed that transformed SADCC into SADC and included a commitment to achieve a fully developed common market. A tribunal has been established to arbitrate disputes between member states arising from the treaty. In 1994, SADC ministers of defense approved the establishment of a regional rapid deployment peacekeeping force to help contain regional conflicts or civil unrest in member states.
Dialogue Organizations
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The original objective of ASEAN was to promote economic cooperation and development, but in recent years the organization has begun to explore how the shared interests of its members might enable it to take on additional tasks. ASEAN has developed mechanisms that could support dispute resolution. The ASEAN framework includes a ministerial-level High Council to help resolve disputes between members. The council offers good offices, and if parties agree, serves as a committee of mediation, inquiry, or conciliation. ASEAN together with its traditional dialogue partners has created a new, broader group, the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), to promote confidence-building mechanisms between states and preventive measures to anticipate and prevent potential conflicts. The ARF expands the links of ASEAN membership to other dialogue partner states primarily in the Asia/Pacific region, and has permitted still others to associate themselves with ARF deliberations through observer status. While ASEAN does not have specific instruments for promoting democracy or human rights, ASEAN representatives went to Cambodia following the July 1997 coup to help negotiate a settlement between Hun Sen and Prince Norodom Ranariddh. Although their overtures were rebuffed, this effort demonstrates the kind and level of effort ASEAN is prepared to take on behalf of its members.
The Commonwealth. Composed of the United Kingdom and most of its former colonies, the Commonwealth has evolved into a network of intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations whose 54 member states account for 1.6 billion people, or over one quarter of the world's population. The heads of government meet biennially, and there are regular ministerial level meetings. Many of the 300 Commonwealth NGOs meet in an NGO Forum every two years under the auspices of the Commonwealth Foundation. The Commonwealth works to advance democracy within its member states and uses election observer groups, fact-finding missions, and suspension of members to advance these goals. The Commonwealth was a leader in the international anti-apartheid movement and forced South Africa to withdraw from membership in 1961. The organization imposed sanctions on Rhodesia after the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965. The Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG) was created in November 1995 to address breaches of the 1991 Harare Declaration, in which the members committed themselves to democracy, good governance, human rights, and the rule of law. Nigeria was the first case in which the CMAG was deployed following the suspension of Nigeria's membership in 1995 by the Commonwealth heads of government. The CMAG has held discussions with the Nigerian government since then in an effort to restore democracy and reestablish normal relations between Abuja and the other Commonwealth members. In 1997, the Commonwealth withdrew recognition of the current regime in Sierra Leone after the army overthrew the elected government.
Nonaligned Movement (NAM). The NAM was formed in 1955 when a group of 29 predominantly newly independent states met in Bandung, Indonesia, to discuss colonialism, economic development, and the maintenance of peace. By 1961, Egypt, India, and Yugoslavia had taken the lead in establishing the NAM as a form of collective resistance to the two superpowers, with the ostensible goal of preventing deadly conflict between East and West. Today, the NAM has grown from 29 to over 100 members in a very loose and diverse coalition of states that operates by consensus; it has no means of enforcing its decisions. The NAM does not have a formal dispute resolution mechanism, nor does it promote democracy or human rights within member states. However, it does provide a voice for smaller states. Today, when the NAM meets, economic issues dominate the agenda. Indonesia has sought to promote a pragmatic role for the NAM that would emphasize research, training, and cooperation in science and technology for development as well as ways to improve the competitiveness of developing countries.
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). Founded in 1985, the SAARC framework offers member states the opportunity to meet once a year to consider a wide range of issues. The organization has developed a facility for arbitration in commercial and industrial problems between members. SAARC has concentrated on a growing array of confidence-building programs to protect and educate children, provide adequate housing, protect the environment, and improve the living standards of the poor. SAARC has also conducted regional conventions that deal with illegal drugs, terrorism, and food security.
COMMISSION PUBLICATIONS
REPORTS
BOOKS
SELECTED PUBLICATIONS OF CARNEGIE CORPORATION'S PROGRAM ON PREVENTING DEADLY CONFLICT
Falkenrath, and Steven E. Miller, Avoiding Nuclear Anarchy: Containing the Threat of Loose Russian Nuclear Weapons and Fissile Material (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).
About the Commissioners
David A. Hamburg, cochair of the Commission, is president emeritus of Carnegie Corporation of New York, having served as president of the Corporation from 1983 to 1997. In addition to holding aca-demic posts at Stanford and Harvard universities, he has been president of the Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences. He has also been president and chairman of the board of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Dr. Hamburg has served on the Chief of Naval Operations Executive Panel and currently serves on the Defense Policy Board of the U.S. Department of Defense. He is also a member of the President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology. He has long been concerned with the problems of human aggression and violence, especially with violence prevention and conflict resolution, and he is the author or coauthor of numerous publications on these subjects.
Cyrus R. Vance, cochair of the Commission, is a partner in the New York law firm of Simpson Thacher & Bartlett. Mr. Vance was U.S. secretary of state from 1977 to 1980 during the Carter administration. He was secretary of the army from 1962 to 1964 and deputy secretary of defense from 1964 to 1967. From 1991 to 1993 Mr. Vance served as personal envoy of the secretary-general of the United Nations in the Yugoslavia crisis and as UN cochairman of the International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia (Lord Owen was the European Union cochairman of the conference). Mr. Vance was also personal envoy of the secretary-general in Nagorno-Karabakh and South Africa in 1992. He has been the secretary-general's personal envoy in the negotiations between Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) from 1993 to the present. He has served as special representative of the U.S. president in civil disturbances in Detroit (1967), in the Cyprus crisis (1967), and in Korea (1968), and he was one of two U.S. negotiators at the Paris Peace Conference on Vietnam (1968-1969).
Gro Harlem Brundtland was the first woman prime minister of Norway, serving in that position three times: in 1981, from 1986 to 1989, and from 1990 to 1997. She has been a member of the Storting (parliament) since 1977 and was minister of the environment from 1974 to 1979. Mrs. Brundtland was leader of the Norwegian Labour Party from 1981 to 1992. She is first vice president of the Socialist International and was a member of the Independent Commission on Disarmament and Security Issues (the Palme Commission). From 1983 to 1987, she chaired the World Commission on Environment and Development, which produced the influential report, Our Common Future.
Virendra Dayal joined the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in 1965, and for the next 14 years he was involved in the management of operations to protect and assist refugees in Africa, Asia, the Americas, and the Middle East. In 1979 he was appointed director of the Office of Special Political Affairs in the offices of the secretary-general, and in 1982 Secretary-General Pérez de Cuéllar asked him to serve as his chef de cabinet, with the rank of under-secretary-general. He continued to serve in this capacity with both Pérez de Cuéllar and Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali until March 1992, when he retired. After his retirement, he assisted Boutros-Ghali in writing An Agenda for Peace, and in September 1992 the secretary-general sent him to South Africa as his personal envoy. Since October 1993, Mr. Dayal has been serving as a member of the National Human Rights Commission of India.
Gareth Evans is deputy leader of the opposition in the Australian Parliament. He was a minister for all 13 years of the Labour Government, most notably serving as Australian foreign minister from 1988 until the government's electoral defeat in March 1996. In 1989 Mr. Evans chaired the inaugural ministerial meeting to establish APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation), and from 1989 to 1991 he played a leading role in developing the UN peace plan for Cambodia. Mr. Evans also led the Australian government's Chemical Weapons Convention initiatives, and in 1995 was instrumental in establishing the Canberra Commission on the Elimination of Nuclear Weapons. Among his publications is the 1993 book, Cooperating for Peace, and the 1994 Foreign Policy article, "Cooperative Security and Intrastate Conflict," for which he won the 1995 Grawemeyer Prize for Ideas Improving World Order.
Alexander L. George is Graham H. Stuart Professor Emeritus of International Relations at Stanford University. A leading academic specialist on deterrence, crisis prevention and management, and coercive diplomacy, Dr. George came to Stanford in 1968 after 20 years at the Rand Corporation, where he had been head of the social science department. The most recent of his many scholarly publications are Limits of Coercive Diplomacy (1994) and Bridging the Gap: Theory and Practice of Foreign Policy (1993). Deterrence in American Foreign Policy, which he coauthored with Richard Smoke, won the Bancroft Prize in 1975. In 1983 he was the recipient of a MacArthur Foundation Five-Year Prize Award.
FlorA MacDonald, a former foreign minister of Canada, is a native of Nova Scotia. She served from 1972 to 1988 as member of parliament for Kingston and the Islands (Ontario), during which time she held three cabinet positions: secretary of state for external affairs, minister of employment and immigration, and minister of communications. In 1989 the secretary-general of the United Nations appointed her to the Eminent Persons' Group to study transnational corporations in South Africa. She was the chairperson of the International Development Research Center from 1992 to 1997. In 1993 Miss MacDonald was named an Officer of the Order of Canada.
Donald F. McHenry is Distinguished Professor in the Practice of Diplomacy at Georgetown University. As U.S. permanent representative to the United Nations from 1979 to 1981, Ambassador McHenry was a member of President Jimmy Carter's cabinet. He had served as U.S. deputy representative to the UN Security Council from 1977 to 1979. He has represented the United States in a number of other international forums and was the U.S. negotiator on the question of Namibia. After ten years at the Department of State, he joined the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1973 as a project director in Humanitarian Policy Studies. He has taught at Southern Illinois, Howard, American, and Georgetown universities.
Olara A. Otunnu is UN Special Representative on Children and Armed Conflict and president of the International Peace Academy, an independent, international institution affiliated with the United Nations and devoted to promoting peacemaking, preventive action, and peacekeeping in international and internal conflicts. Mr. Otunnu practiced and taught law before serving successively as a member of the Uganda Consultative Council (interim parliament), Uganda's permanent representative to the United Nations, and minister of foreign affairs. During his tenure at the UN, Mr. Otunnu served in various capacities, including president of the Security Council, chairman of the UN Commission on Human Rights, chairman of the Contact Group on Global Negotiations, and vice president of the UN General Assembly. After the period in diplomacy and government, Mr. Otunnu returned to academia, conducting research and teaching in Paris, before assuming his present position. He is currently a member of the UN Study on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Children and the Commission on Global Governance.
David Owen is a member of the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, chancellor of Liverpool University, and chairman of Humanitas, a charitable organization that builds on the work of the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues, of which he was a member from 1983 to 1986. From August 1992 to June 1995, he was the European Union cochairman of the International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia (Cyrus Vance was the UN cochairman until 1993). Lord Owen was a member of the House of Commons from 1966 to 1992. During that time, under Labour governments, he served as Navy Minister, Health Minister, and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs. He cofounded the Social Democratic Party which he led from 1983 to 1990. He was a member of the Palme Commission from 1980 to 1989.
Shridath Ramphal, a former foreign minister of Guyana, was secretary general of the Commonwealth from 1975 to 1990. He is cochairman of the Commission on Global Governance, whose report, Our Global Neighborhood, was published in January 1995. He chairs the board of the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance in Stockholm and the international steering committee of LEAD, the Leadership for Environment and Development program. Sir Shridath is a member of the council of the International Negotiation Network set up by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter and of the board of Canada's International Development Research Center. He is also chancellor of the University of the West Indies and of the University of Warwick in England. In 1991 he was a special advisor to the secretary-general of the UN Conference on Environment and Development--the Earth Summit--for which he wrote the book, Our Country the Planet: Forging a Partnership for Survival.
Roald Z. Sagdeev is Distinguished Professor in the department of physics at the University of Maryland and director of the East-West Space Science Center. Professor Sagdeev, whose area of special interest is nonlinear physics and plasmas, is one of the world's leading physicists. He was director of the Space Research Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences for 15 years and was former president Gorbachev's science advisor. In 1987-1988 he was chairman of the Committee of Soviet Scientists for Global Security. Professor Sagdeev was a people's deputy of the USSR Congress, roughly the equivalent of a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention. He has long been a strong and effective advocate of building bridges of understanding between the superpowers.
John D. Steinbruner is a senior fellow at the Brookings Institution. From 1978 to 1997 he was the director of the Foreign Policy Studies program there. His research has focused on problems of international security. Before joining Brookings, he held academic positions at Yale University, the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Among the most recent of his many books and monographs is A New Concept of Cooperative Security (1992); he is also a major contributor to Global Engagement: Cooperation and Security in the 21st Century (1994), which was edited by Jan Nolan, and he wrote on international security conditions in U.S.-Israeli Relations at the Crossroads (1996), edited by Gabriel Sheffer. His articles have appeared in such journals as Arms Control Today, Foreign Affairs, Politique Internationale, Soviet Economy, Daedalus, and Scientific American.
Brian Urquhart was scholar-in-residence in the Ford Foundation's International Affairs Program from 1986 to 1996. From 1939 to 1945 Sir Brian served in the British army in infantry and airborne units in North Africa and Europe. His UN career began with the birth of the institution itself--from 1945 to 1946 he was personal assistant to Gladwyn Jebb, the executive secretary of the Preparatory Commission of the United Nations in London. He held many posts in his 40 years with the UN: he was personal assistant to Trygve Lie, the first secretary-general, for three and a half years, and from 1954 to 1971, during the tenure of Ralph J. Bunche, he served in various capacities in the Office of the Under-Secretary-General for Special Political Affairs, which dealt with peacekeeping and conflict control. In 1974 Sir Brian was appointed under-secretary-general for Special Political Affairs, a post he held until his retirement. As under-secretary-general, among his responsibilities was the direction of peacekeeping operations and negotiations in Cyprus, the Middle East, Namibia, and other conflict areas. The most recent of his many books are Ralph Bunche: An American Life (1993) and (with Erskine Childers) Renewing the United Nations System (1994) and A World in Need of Leadership (1996).
John C. Whitehead is chairman of AEA Investors, Inc., a special situation investment company. During the Reagan administration, Mr. Whitehead was U.S. deputy secretary of state, under George Shultz, from 1985 to 1989. Among his areas of special interest were relations with Eastern Europe and the United Nations. After service in the navy, he began his professional career in 1947 at Goldman Sachs & Co., where he remained for 38 years, becoming senior partner and cochairman in 1976; he retired from Goldman Sachs in late 1984. He is chairman of the board of many institutions, including the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, the United Nations Association of the U.S.A., and the International Rescue Committee, and he is a former chairman of the Harvard Board of Overseers, the Asia Society, and the Brookings Institution.
Sahabzada Yaqub-Khan is the chairman of the board of trustees of the Aga Khan University and Hospital in Karachi, Pakistan. He retired from the Pakistan Army in 1971 after a long and distinguished career that began even before the establishment of Pakistan as an independent state. General Yaqub-Khan served as vice chief of the General Staff, commander Armoured Division, commandant of the Command and Staff College, and chief of the General Staff. He was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general as corps commander and commander, Eastern Zone, and governor of East Pakistan. After his retirement, he embarked on a career as a diplomat, first as ambassador to France (1972-1973 and 1980-1982), the United States (1973-1979), and the Soviet Union (1979-1980), and then as foreign minister for nearly nine years between 1982 and 1991, and again in 1996-1997, a post that he held under seven different governments. His career then shifted to the United Nations, where he was the special representative of the United Nations secretary-general for the Western Sahara from 1992 to 1997.
Special Advisors to the Commission
Arne Olav Brundtland is the director of Studies of Foreign and Security Policy and senior research fellow at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs (NUPI). He is also a syndicated columnist and professor of international affairs and Norwegian politics at the International Summer School of the University of Oslo. Previously he served as editor-in-chief of Internasjonal Politikk, coordinator of security studies at the Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, and copresident of the First Euro-Asian Comparative Workshop on Soviet Seapower. He is widely published and has been a visiting scholar at research institutions in the United States, Russia, and the Nordic countries. Mr. Brundtland is a member of the steering board of the advisory council for arms control and disarmament of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the International Institute for Strategic Studies, and the Trilateral Commission. Mr. Brundtland received his Magister Artium degree in political science from the University of Oslo and began his specialization in arms control as a visiting scholar at Harvard University.
Herbert S. Okun is the U.S. member of the United Nations International Narcotics Control Board. He is a visiting lecturer on international law at Yale Law School. A career officer in the U.S. Foreign Service from 1955 to 1991, he served as ambassador to the German Democratic Republic and to the United Nations. From 1991 to 1993 he served as deputy cochairman of the International Conference on the Former Yugoslavia, and from 1993 to 1997 he was a mediator of the dispute between Greece and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
Members of the Advisory Council
Morton Abramowitz
Former President
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
Ali Abdullah Alatas
Minister of Foreign Affairs
Republic of Indonesia
Graham T. Allison
Director
Belfer Center for Science and
International Affairs
Robert Badinter
Senator of Hauts de Seine, Senat
Carol Bellamy
Director
UNICEF
Harold Brown
Counselor
Center for Strategic and International Studies
McGeorge Bundy*
Scholar-in-Residence
Carnegie Corporation of New York
Jimmy Carter
Chairman
The Carter Center
Lori Damrosch
Professor of Law
Columbia University School of Law
Francis M. Deng
Senior Fellow
Foreign Policy Studies Program
The Brookings Institution
Sidney D. Drell
Professor and Deputy Director
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
Stanford University
Lawrence S. Eagleburger
Senior Foreign Policy Advisor
Baker Donelson Bearman and Caldwell
Leslie H. Gelb
President
Council on Foreign Relations
David Gompert
Vice President
National Security Research
RAND
Andrew J. Goodpaster
Chairman
The Atlantic Council of the United States
Mikhail Gorbachev
The Gorbachev Foundation
James P. Grant**
Executive Director
UNICEF
Lee H. Hamilton
United States House of Representatives
Theodore M. Hesburgh
President Emeritus
University of Notre Dame
Donald L. Horowitz
James B. Duke Professor of Law and
Political Science
Duke University School of Law
Michael Howard
President
International Institute for Strategic Studies
Karl Kaiser
Director
Research Institute of the German Society
for Foreign Affairs
Nancy Kassebaum Baker
United States Senate (Ret.)
Sol M. Linowitz
Honorary Chairman
The Academy for Educational Development
Richard G. Lugar
United States Senate
Michael Mandelbaum
Christian A. Herter Professor and Director
of American Foreign Policy
The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced
International Studies
The Johns Hopkins University
Robert S. McNamara
Former U.S. Secretary of Defense
William H. McNeill
Professor Emeritus of History
University of Chicago
Sam Nunn
Partner
King & Spalding
General Olusegun Obasanjo
Former Head of State of Nigeria
President
Africa Leadership Forum
Sadako Ogata
The United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees
Javier Pérez de Cuéllar
Former Secretary-General
United Nations
Condoleezza Rice
Provost
Stanford University
Eliot L. Richardson
Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy
Harold H. Saunders
Director of International Affairs
The Kettering Foundation
George P. Shultz
Distinguished Fellow
Hoover Institution on War, Revolution,
and Peace
Stanford University
Richard H. Solomon
President
United States Institute of Peace
James Gustave Speth
Administrator
United Nations Development Program
Desmond Tutu
Archbishop Emeritus of Cape Town
Admiral James D. Watkins, USN (Ret.)
Secretary of Energy, 1989-1993
Elie Wiesel
Nobel Laureate
Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the
Humanities, Boston University
I. William Zartman
Jacob Blaustein Professor of International
Organizations and Conflict Resolution
Director of the African Studies and Conflict
Management Programs
The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced
International Studies
The Johns Hopkins University
Acknowledgments
A report of this size and complexity and, indeed, the entire corpus of Commission work would not have been possible without the assistance and advice of many people. They shared enthusiastically of their time and talent to help develop the Commission's ideas and the preparation of this report. The Commission gratefully acknowledges their assistance.
Yasushi Akashi, Airat Aklaev, Carl Alexandre, Ekua Annan, Margaret Anstee, Mark Anstey, R. Scott Appleby, Patricia Aquino-Macri, Alexei Arbatov, Karen Armstrong, Deana Arsenian, Paul Arthur, Sergei Arutiunov, Kader Asmal, Jeannette Aspden, Anatole Ayissi, J. Martin Bailey, Michael Bailey, Andy Bair, Nicole Ball, Karen Ballentine, Henri Barkey, Harry G. Barnes, Jr., Andrea Bartoli, John H. Barton, David Bayley, Ruth Beitler, Peter D. Bell, William J. Bien, Nils Gunnar Billinger, Anne-Marie Blackman, Michael Blakley, Barry Blechman, Landrum Bolling, Peter Bouckaert, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Jeffrey Boutwell, James M. Brasher III, Thorstein Bratteland, David Bridgman, James Bright, Harry Broer, Michael Brown, Michael Bryans, Colin Bundy, James Burger, David Burrell, Brian X. Bush, George Bush, David Byman, Azar Cachalia, Charles T. Call, Ingvar Carlsson, William D. Carmichael, Burgess Carr, Rosalynn Carter, Bernadette Crasto, Carey Cavanaugh, Antonia H. Chayes, Abram Chayes, Frank Chikane, Sukyong Choi, Tyrus W. Cobb, Paul Conlon, Frances Cook, Richard E. Coombs, David Cortright, Theodore Couloumbis, Jeanne D'Onofrio, Romeo Dallaire, Mvume Dandala, Natasha Davids, Lynne Davidson, Robert Davies, Alvaro de Soto, Larry Diamond, Lynn DiMartino, Leokadia Drobizheva, Annette Dyer, Michael Dziedzic, Colin Eglin, Espen Barth Eide, Vigleik Eide, Luigi Einaudi, Mark S. Ellis, Michael Emery, Charles English, Ken Eyre, Maxime Faille, Anthony Fainburg, Karl Farris, Scott R. Feil, Shai Feldman, Barbara Finberg, Michèle A. Flournoy, David W. Foley, Virginia I. Foran, Shepard Forman, Jason Forrester, J. Wayne Fredericks, Jordana Friedman, Julie Fuerth, Graham Fuller, Robert L. Gallucci, John R. Galvin, Mahmut Gareev, Louis Geiger, Leslie H. Gelb, Thomas Gjelten, Eliot M. Goldberg, Richard J. Goldstone, James E. Goodby, Pravin Gordhan, Uri Gordon, Diana Gordon, Xavier Gorostiaga, Nik Gowing, Anthony Gray, W.C. Gregson, Melanie Greenberg, Fen Osler Hampson, Alan Hanson, Peter Hansen, Anton Harber, John Hardeman, Anne Harringer, Amy Harris, Elaine Hart, Jeffrey Herbst, Kate Heyl, Bruce Hoffman, David Holloway, P. Terrence Hopmann, Jonathan T. Howe, Edmund J. Hull, Heather Hurlburt, Bruce Jentleson, Douglas Johnston, Bruce Jones, Eason Jordan, Mark Juergensmeyer, Donald Kagan, Arnold Kanter, Daniel J. Kaufman, Colin Keating, Richard Kedzior, Michael J. Kelly, Donald Kennedy, Kevin Kennedy, Paul Kennedy, Alex Keynan, Arthur Khachikian, Irene Khan, Kevin King, John Kirton, Leonid Kishkovsky, Michael Klare, Robin Kline, Andre Kokoshin, Andrei Kortunov, Martin Kramer, Jean E. Krasno, Victor Kremenyuk, Winfried Lang, Gail Lapidus, Mark Laudy, Edward J. Laurance, Michèle Ledgerwood, John Ledlie, Tali Levy, Sol M. Linowitz, Tom Lodge, William J. Long, Robert Loosle, R.F.M. Lubbers, Vladimir Lukin, Michael Lund, Douglas E. Lute, Princeton Lyman, Vladimir Lysenko, John Arch MacInnis, Robert Maguire, Clovis Maksoud, Robert Karl Manoff, Maxwell Manwaring, David Mares, John Maresca, Jessica T. Mathews, Amitabh Mattoo, Michael Mazarr, Mary McCarthy, Eileen McCormick-Place, Margaret McGuiness, Heather McKay, Kenneth Menkhaus, Barbara Messing, Elliott Milhollin, Eric E. Morris, Alex Morrison, Elva Murphy, Willam Nash, Andrew Natsios, Nicoli Nattrass, Beyers Naude, Nafez Nazzal, Richard Nelson, Joyce Neu, Kathleen Newland, Nancy Nielsen, Suzanne Nielson, Matthew Nimetz, Crystal Nix, Trygve Nordby, Kjell Åke Nordquist, Stefan Noreen, Joseph Nye, Brian O'Connell, Claus Offe, J. O'Neil Pouliot, Robert B. Oakley, Louis L. Ortmayer, Arnstein Overkil, Hisashi Owada, Dileep Padgaonkar, Harold Pakendorf, Ebrahim Patel, David L. Patton, Emil Payin, Connie Peck, Elizabeth Pelletreau, Robert Perito, William J. Perry, James Daniel Phillips, Barry Posen, William Potter, Sharon Poulson, Om Prakash Rathor, Jeremy Pressman, Moeen Qureshi, Mamphela Ramphele, Aviezer Ravitsky, Jairam Reddy, Jack Reed, James W. Reed, Wolfgang Reinicke, Lillian Rice, Iqbal Riza, Adam Roberts, David Robinson, Matt L. Rodriguez, Eric Roethlisberger, Alan Romberg, Victor Ronneberg, Michael Rose, Richard Rosecrance, Patricia L. Rosenfield, Caleb S. Rossiter, Barnett Rubin, Avery Russell, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Francisco Sagasti, Cynthia Sampson, John Samuel, Mary Lou Sandwick, Chris Saunders, James A. Schear, Erwin A. Schmidl, Enid C.B. Schoettle, Sarah Sewell, Duygu Sezer, Mintimer Shaimiyev, Alan Shaw, Tricia Shepherd, Susan Shin, Ints Silins, Aleksandr Sirotkin, Timothy Sisk, Gunnar Sjöstedt, Maggie Smart, Judy Smith, Scott Snyder, Steve Spataro, Bertram Spector, Leonard S. Spector, David C. Speedie, Alisa Stack, William Stanley, C.P. Steenkamp, Joel Stettenheimer, Vivien Stewart, Thomas Stransky, Jan Stromsen, Astri Suhrke, Charles L. Sykes, Strobe Talbott, Andrea Talentino, Rock Tang, Alexander Tchoubarian, Geoffrey Thale, Lynn Thomas, Frans Timmermans, Valery Tishkov, Abdullah Toukan, Greg Treverton, Holly Trotter, Svetlana Tsalik, Symeon Tsomokos, Astrid S. Tuminez, Arturo Valenzuela, Stephen Van Evera, John Van Oudenaren, Raimo Väyrynen, John W. Vessey, Sergio Vieira de Mello, Katharina R. Vogeli, Rudy von Bernuth, Molly Warlow, James Warner, Robert Wasserman, James D. Watkins, Todd Webb, Erika Weinthal, Joshua Weiss, Morten Wetland, Håkan Wiberg, Milton J. Wilkinson, Moegslen Williams, Molly Williamson, Francis Wilson, John F. Wolff, Suzanne Wood, James Woods, Susan L. Woodward, Robin Wright, Andrew Yarrow, Casimir Yost, I. William Zartman, and Helen Zille.
We would like to give special thanks to former members of the Commission staff:
Katharine Beckman, Rachel Epstein, Brian J. George, Jenifer Hartnett, Timothy J. McGourthy, Yvonne E. Schilz, and Linda Schoff.
Commission Staff
Jane E. Holl
Executive Director
John Stremlau
Advisor to the Executive Director
Esther Brimmer
Senior Associate
Thomas J. Leney
Senior Associate
Robert E. Lande
Managing Editor
Cornella Carter-Taylor
Office Administrator
Katherine Veit
Assistant to the Executive Director
Gabrielle Bowdoin
Administrative/Research Assistant
Marilyn Butler-Norris
Office Assistant
Wanda Ellison
Administrative Assistant
Jeffrey R. Pass
Administrative/Research Assistant
Heather Podlich
Information Systems/Research Assistant
Traci Swanson
Administrative/Research Assistant
Nancy Ward
Administrative/Research Assistant